UNIT+3

Unit 3: The conscious self

This unit focuses on the study of the relationship between the brain and the mind through examining  the basis of consciousness, behaviour, cognition and memory. Advances in brain research methods have opened new ways to understanding the relationship between  mind, brain and behaviour. The limitations of traditionally invasive approaches in human research  have given way to the use of non-invasive methods such as brain imaging technologies including   positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and more   recently transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Students study the structure and functioning of  the human brain and nervous system, and explore the nature of consciousness and altered states of   consciousness including sleep. The brain continually receives and processes vast amounts of information from its internal and external  environment. Memory involves the selective retention and retrieval of this information and it plays  an important role in determining behaviour. Students consider the function of the nervous system in  memory and investigate the ways in which information is processed, stored and utilised. They apply  different theories of memory and forgetting to their everyday learning experiences. Students analyse research methodologies associated with classic and contemporary theories, studies  and models, consider ethical issues associated with the conduct of research and the use of findings,   and apply appropriate research methods when undertaking their own investigations. __ The research methodologies and ethical principles considered in this unit are: __ • experimental research: construction of research hypotheses; identification of operational independent  and dependent variables; identification of extraneous and potential confounding variables including   individual participant differences, order effects, experimenter effect, placebo effects; ways of   minimising confounding and extraneous variables including type of experiment, counterbalancing,   single and double blind procedures, placebos; evaluation of different types of experimental   research designs including independent-groups, matched-participants, repeated-measures; reporting   conventions • sampling procedures in selection and allocation of participants: random sampling; stratified  sampling; random-stratified sampling; random allocation of participants to groups; control and   experimental groups • techniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection: case studies; observational studies; selfreports;  questionnaires; interviews; brain imaging and recording technologies   • statistics: measures of central tendency including mean, median and mode; interpretation of   p-values and conclusions; reliability including internal consistency; validity including construct   and external; evaluation of research in terms of generalising the findings to the population • ethical principles and professional conduct: the role of the experimenter; protection and security of  participants’ rights; confidentiality; voluntary participation; withdrawal rights; informed consent   procedures; use of deception in research; debriefing; use of animals in research; role of ethics   committees.

Area of study 1  Mind, brain and body   Why do I think and feel the way I do? How does my brain work? What is the relationship between  my brain and my mind? What happens when I sleep? This area of study focuses on the role of the functioning brain and nervous system in relation to  awareness of self, the environment and behaviour. Students explore the relationships between  consciousness and thoughts, feelings and behaviour by comparing the characteristics of normal   waking consciousness with altered states of consciousness. They examine how the understanding of  consciousness and sleep patterns has been enhanced by developments in brain stimulation, recording   and imaging technologies, and the expansion of knowledge in cognitive neuroscience. Students explore the contribution that classic and contemporary research has made to this area of  study and interpret behaviours and states of mind from psychological perspectives. They consider  the ethical principles associated with the techniques used to investigate brain function and to measure   states of consciousness. Students apply appropriate methods of psychological research and ethical  principles to their own investigations.

Outcome 1 On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain the relationship between the brain,  states of consciousness including sleep, and behaviour, and describe the contribution of selected studies   and brain research methods to the investigation of brain function. To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and  related key skills outlined on page 13 and research methodologies on page 22. Key knowledge  This knowledge includes:   • consciousness as a psychological construct informed by the work of René Descartes and William   James   • concepts of normal waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness, including   daydreaming, meditative and alcohol-induced, in terms of levels of awareness, content limitations,   controlled and automatic processes, perceptual and cognitive distortions, emotional awareness,   self-control and time orientation   • sleep as an altered state of consciousness: purpose, characteristics and patterns of the stages of   sleep including rapid eye movement (REM) and the non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stages of   sleep   • methods used to study the level of alertness in normal waking consciousness and the stages of   sleep:   – measurement of physiological responses including electroencephalograph (EEG), electrooculargraph   (EOG), heart rate, body temperature and galvanic skin response (GSR)   – the use of sleep laboratories, video monitoring and self reports   • the effects of total and partial sleep deprivation:   – loss of REM and NREM sleep   – sleep recovery patterns including amount of sleep required, REM rebound and microsleeps   – sleep-wake cycle shifts during adolescence compared with child and adult sleep including   delayed onset of sleep and need for sleep   • the interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure including:   – roles of the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic), and   autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)   – roles of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex in the control of motor, somatosensory, visual and   auditory processing in humans; primary cortex and association areas   – hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right and left   hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, non-verbal versus verbal and analytical functions   – the role of the reticular activating system in selective attention and wakefulness; role of the   thalamus in directing attention and switching sensory input on and off   • contribution of studies to the investigation of cognitive processes of the brain and implications for   the understanding of consciousness including:   – studies of aphasia including Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia   – spatial neglect caused by stroke or brain injury   – split-brain studies including the work of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga   – perceptual anomalies including motion after-effect, change blindness, synaesthesia   • the application and use of brain research methods in investigating the relationship between biological   and cognitive factors of human behaviours including:   – direct brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)   – brain recording and imaging techniques: computed tomography (CT), positron emission   tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), magnetic resonance   imaging (MRI), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)   • research methods and ethical principles associated with the study of the brain and states of   consciousness, as outlined in the introduction to the unit.

AREA OF STUDY 2

Memory

Why do I remember some things and forget others? How are memories formed? Can I improve my   memory? These questions highlight the characteristics of memory as a cognitive process. Memory is essential to our identity: it connects our past experiences to the present and shapes our future by enabling us to adapt to daily changes in our environment. Students investigate the retention of   experiences and learning as memory and the factors that affect retention and recall of information. They study the neural basis of memory and the connectivity between brain areas to explain the complexity of   memory, factors that affect memory and its decline over time, and the cause of forgetfulness. Students examine models that explain processes and types of memory, consider how to measure retention of   memory and investigate techniques for improving and manipulating memory.

As they analyse and evaluate the contribution that classic and contemporary studies have made to

this field of study, students consider the techniques used to gather data and the associated ethical implications. Students apply appropriate methods of psychological research and ethical principles when undertaking their own research investigations related to memory.

Outcome 2

On completion of this unit the student should be able to compare theories that explain the neural basis of memory and factors that affect its retention, and evaluate the effectiveness of techniques for improving and manipulating memory. To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and related key skills outlined on page 13 and research methodologies on page 22.

Key knowledge

This knowledge includes:

• mechanism of memory formation:

– role of the neuron in memory formation informed by the work of E. Richard Kandel – roles of the hippocampus and temporal lobe – consolidation theory – memory decline over the lifespan – amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease

• comparison of models for explaining human memory:

– Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory including maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, serial position effect and chunking – Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer – levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart – organisation of long-term memory including declarative and episodic memory, and semantic network theory

• strengths and limitations of psychological theories of forgetting:

– retrieval failure theory including tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – interference theory – motivated forgetting as informed by the work of Sigmund Freud including repression and suppression – decay theory

• manipulation and improvement of memory:

– forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus – measures of retention including the relative sensitivity of recall, recognition and relearning – use of context dependent cues and state dependent cues – mnemonic devices including acronyms, acrostics, peg-word method, narrative chaining and method of loci – effect of misleading questions on eye-witness testimonies including the reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftus

• research methods and ethical principles associated with the study of memory, as outlined in the

introduction to the unit.

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Unit

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